Culture

Althrough quaint folklore and superstition heighten consumer interest in stones like sapphire and opal, they rarely clinch sales of these gems. But when it comes to jadeite, folklore and superstition are living reality and thus bona fide selling points. For 7,000 years, the ancient Chinese were using a variety of white to green stone known as ‘Yu’ in Chinese ‘    ’ or as the West would refer to as ‘Jade’.  Appreciated for its toughness and is durability to wear and tear, many early civilisations used it for tools and ornaments.  In China, most of the jade ornaments came from the Khotan, Sinkiang area.  In other countries, the jade artifacts were found and appreciated by people in the Swiss Lake area of Europe, the Aztecs and Mayans of Central America (especially Guatemala and Mexico), itoigawa jade of Central Island of Honshu, Japan and Maori natives using dark green jade in New Zealand.

Nephrite-jade was an important stone to the Chinese until the arrival of Burmese jadeite-jade in the mid-18th century. The Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) fell in love with fei-ts’ui which resemble the brilliant green plumage of the kingfisher.  As the new found favourite stone of the Emperor, many artisans turned to carving jadeite-jade instead of nephrite.  The demand for jade took off when the Chinese people began to appreciate “The Stone of the Heaven”.   The popularity of jadeite-jade was further enhanced when Empress Ci Xi (late Qing Dynasty 1835 – 1908) ordered things to be made from the highest quality jade.
To fully appreciate jadeite jade it is necessary to reference an important point made by Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 2). They note that "an understanding of jadeite is not limited to the technical or exacting, but it also requires a feeling for the cultural, textural, and ephemeral qualities that make the study of jade unlike any other in the world of gemstones." Their point reflects jadeite's very special relationship with Chinese culture, a relationship that is only rivaled perhaps by diamond's relationship with the English-speaking world.

History
Jadeite is closely associated with two ancient civilizations, those of Mesoamerica[1] and China. Jadeite was used by most of the major civilizations in ancient Mesoamerica: the Olmec, Aztec, Maya, and so forth. It was highly prized throughout the region: "Gold did not have the same intrinsic value for Mesoamerican peoples... that is has for us...Jade was of greater value" (Noguera 1971: 268). Among the early Spanish writers of the sixteenth century, Sahagun (1963: 222) comments that "emerald green Jade... its appearance is like a green quetzal feather. And its body is as transparent and as dense as obsidian. It is precious, esteemed, valuable..." In his account of Aztec civilization, Vaillant (1965: 139-140) remarks:

 

The most precious substance among the Aztecs was jade, or stones resembling it in texture and colour... The Aztecs did not have our modern esteem for gold, so the Spaniards had great difficulty in getting it at first. The Mexican Indians responded to the invaders' demands for objects of value by offering jade and turquoise, those substances most precious to themselves... Such misguided compliance was highly irritating to Cortés and his men.

 

In fact, a number of writers have commented on the contrast in value placed on jade by the people of Mesoamerica and the views towards the stone by the Spanish conquerors. This difference can readily be seen in an account of gifts given by the Aztec ruler Montezuma and the Spanish leader Cortés:

 

Cortés and Montezuma were accustomed to play each day a native game which in many ways resembles chess... It was their further custom at the close of each day's  game to present each other with some gift. At the close of one day's game the Aztec monarch presented Cortés with several large discs of gold and silver handsomely worked. Cortés was greatly pleased and so expressed himself. Montezuma smiled and said: The gift tomorrow shall be such that today's gift will seem in value and preciousness, when compared with it, as no more than a single stone tile on the roadway... The royal treasurer of Montezuma brought in on a golden slaver the royal gift, four small carved jade beads. The bitter disappointment of Cortés was so great that he could scarcely conceal it" (Willard 1926: 146-147).

 

This is a theme that, to some extent, continues to this day in respect to the difference in views towards jadeite by Chinese and Westerners. There is an interesting sequel to the above story recounted by Vaillant (1965: 139-140) from the writings of Diaz del Castillo (from chapter 128 of his chronicles):

 

During the night when Cortés retreated from Mexico, the leader, after taking his share of treasure, turned the surplus over to his troops. Many, burdened down with gold, drowned ignominiously in the canals. Diaz, however, noted Indian usage and confined himself to four jades which he was able to exchange later and which, in his words, "served me well in healing my wounds and gathering me food.

 

       Jadeite in Mesoamerica. The story of jadeite in Mesoamerica begins with the earliest civilization, that of the Olmec. Formative Olmec civilization was centered in the present western Mexican state of Guerrero, from where it spear eastward towards the Gulf of Mexico around the state of Veracruz. The earliest Olmec pieces of worked jadeite found so far (and the oldest found anywhere in the New World for that matter) are votive celts and axes dating from around 1200-1000 BC (Stone 1993: 142). Ward (1996: 29) comments that "the Olmec carved unsurpassed human figures. Theirs are the strongest representations of human faces ever carved in jade." However, as Rands (1965: 579) notes, carved jadeite from "Preclassic horizons which can be related stylistically to this tradition are not numerous, although a number of carvings with Olmecoid features suggest the early importance of jade and jadelike stones."

       Jaideite constitutes only a small portion of the green stones worked by the Olmec. The center of green stone working among the Olmec was apparently in the vicinity of the Balsas River in Guerrero State. Archaeologists have discovered a workshop near the confluence of the Amacuzac and Balsas rivers with "fragments of jadeite, silex, jasper, onyx, and quartz, as well as obsidian and marine shells, dating to about 1000 B.C." (Griffin 1993: 206). Luckert (1976: 94-95) argues that green stones such as serpentine and jadeite were closely related to the Olmec's religious beliefs. He links the rise in the use of such green stones over darker stones like basalt to the evolution of what he refers to as the Olmec serpent cult: "The Serpent of the reform movement was green; and the Snake people of La Venta undertook no less a task than to transform their local portion of the Earth Serpent into a green one." Moreover, he believes that "if ordinary green layers of serpentine rock represented the Green Serpent's body, jades and better grades of serpentine signified the cores of the serpentine essence— the Green Serpent's bones and teeth."

       The presence of worked jadeite in numerous Olmec archaeological sites has raised questions about the source(s) of the raw material. It is generally recognized that the worked jadeite found in the Gulf coast of Mexico came from somewhere else. In his discussion of Olmec trade, Coe (1968: 94, 103) refers to what he terms the "jade route" from Guerrero to the Gulf. Writing several decades ago, Adams (1977: 87) stated that Olmec jade was "probably obtained from the Balsas Valley in Guerrero (near the sacred caves of Oxtotitlan and Juxtlahuaca), from the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala..., and from other as yet unknown sources." Reviewing what was known as of the early 1990s, Garber, et al (1993: 213) state:

 

Although serpentine sources are known for Guerrero [see Gay 1987: 33], jadeite sources apparently remain unknown. The late artisan William Spratling was rumored to have been exploiting a Guerrero jadeite source for his workshop in Taxco. If such a source exists, its location has remained a well-kept secret since his death decades ago. Thus, although Guerrero greenstone may have traveled through Middle Formative period exchange networks to Gulf Coast Olmec centers, the stone may have been serpentine rather than the jadeite Coe hypothesized.

 

Garber, et al,  also review other reported sources (pages 213-214), but the only confirmed source of jadeite that is similar to that worked by the Olmec is from the Motagua River Valley, further to the south in Guatemala and within Maya territory (this site will be discussed in greater length later).

       For the Maya the color green was associated with two important life-giving substances, water and maize, and the green stone was therefore viewed as having life-giving properties (Digby 1964: 10-11). Non-jadeite greenstone beads dating from around 1500 BC have been discovered within the Maya area on the Pacific coast of Chiapas (Garber, et al 1993: 211) and it is certainly possible that Maya were carving jadeite prior to the Olmec, but this has yet to be proven. The Maya occupied the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and a portion of Honduras. Blom (1934: 542) remarks that among the Maya:

 

Feathers were used for personal adornment, as was also jade and gold. The brilliant tail-feathers of the 'trogan resplendens,' the vivid green of jade, were rare and therefore commanded a high price. The maize-plant was green, the forest was green. All good as well as rare things were green, and therefore the Maya considered green a sacred color, attached special value to green things; just as the Spaniards, and we do to this day, express wealth, abundance and luxury in gold, and more frequently in gilt... Even small slivers of jade were polished and perforated for suspension, and large pieces were carved in the shape of human faces, animals, or... shaped like a hand.

 

Most of Mayan jadeite objects date from the Classic period (300-1000 AD). In the Maya lowlands of Yucatan during the late Classic Period many jadeite items have been found (see Proskouriakoff 1974), but much (if not all) of this appears to have been imported, probably from the Motagua River Valley. During the postclassic period, Rands (1965: 579) states that "Maya jadeworking seems to have suffered a severe decline." Nevertheless, jade remained highly valued. Bishop Diego de Landa (1941), writing around the time of the Spanish conquest reported that jade beads were used by the Maya of Yucatan as money.

       Archaeologists have been interested in discovering the source of Maya jadeite for a long time. Blom (1934: 542) wrote in the 1930s that "... the knowledge of the ancient jade-mines has been lost. There is an indication that these mines were already lost or exhausted in [ancient] Maya times." The latter belief was based on the fact that when Blom was writing archaeologists had found that relatively large pieces of carved jade were found in the older burial sites, whereas in more recent sites they tended to find "re-worked pieces—i.e., larger objects that have been cut into smaller pieces and re-carved." As will be discussed at length later, it is now believed that most, if not all of the jadeite worked by the ancient Maya came from the Motagua River Valley.

       Peoples living further to the north of the Olmec and Maya, such as the Aztec and Mixtec, also valued jadeite and other green stones. Among these peoples, the colossal toad (chalchihuitl) was the symbol for precious stone or jade (Nicholson 1971: fig. 41, pg. 116). I have already mentioned how highly the Aztec valued jadeite. In discussing central Mexico around 600 BC, Adams (1977: 126) states the "jade was used in ear ornaments and other personal jewelry, although this was uncommon. Quite probably, the stone already had assumed its mystical and high status properties and was restricted to persons of high social rank." Further south, in Oaxaca, Adams (1977: 213) mentions archaeologists finding "some carved jades" in the tombs of Monte Alban that "are relatively simple in technique and motif. The best were imports from the Maya highlands."

       Jadeite objects also have been found south of the Maya area. A relatively large number of objects have been found in Costa Rica in particular. As noted by Easby (1968: 9), "no region [in ancient Mesoamerica] produced a greater abundance of jade objects than Costa Rica, whose lapidaries were among the most skillful in pre-Columbian America." Unfortunately, relatively little is known about the people who made these figures. Jadeite objects discovered in Costa Rica date primarily from between 500 BC and 700 AD (Stone 1993: 143). The source of the jadeite found in Costa Rica appears primarily to be the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala, although some may have come from local sources as well. Stone (1993: 141) notes that, while jade objects have been found in El Salvador, southern Honduras, and Nicaragua, they are very rare. Garber, et al (1993: 215-219) provide a brief overview of jadeite objects from Honduras (also see Hirth and Hirth 1993). They note (page 215) that jadeite carving in central and eastern Honduras "is part of a broader Honduran stone-working tradition that developed independently of the jadeite carving found among the Maya further to the west." Jadeite appears in Honduras during the Formative Period (700 BC to 400 AD) and "the use of jadeite in public and ritual offerings reached its peak during the first part of the Classic period" (i.e., shortly after 400 AD). Its use in Honduras appears to decline later during the Classic period (which lasted until about 1000 AD) and, while some jadeite objects have been found dating from the postclassic period, they are relatively rare.

       Jadeite production in Mesoamerica came to a virtual halt with the coming of the Spanish in the early sixteenth century. The Mesoamerican jadeite industry was revived in 1974 with the founding of Jades, S.A., in Antigua, Guatemala, which was established following the discovery of jadeite deposits in the Motagua River Valley (see www.jades.centroamerica).

       Jadeite in China and Burma. Objects made of minerals classified generally as jade have been used in China for a very long time.[2] Durant (1954: 737) notes that "Jade is as old as Chinese history, for it is found in the most ancient graves." Jade was a symbol for the official state worship of the Heaven, Earth, and the Four Quarters. However, only a very small percentage of this jade was jadeite. In the past, the Chinese used the term yü for jade in general and only occasionally bothered to distinguish between chên yu, which was used for nephrite, and fei-ts'ui, which was used for jadeite. While much is made in writing about the Chinese reverence for jade, until recently this reverence was primarily for objects made of nephrite and generally not jadeite.

       Initially the primary source for ancient jade by the Chinese was the K'un Lun Mountains of southeastern Turkestan and the adjacent Karakash or Black Jade River and Yurungash or White Jade River in the vicinity of the oasis of Khotan (Dohrenwend 1971: 10). Marco Polo is said to have passed through this area in 1472 and to have seen what he thought was jasper and chalcedony, but what was later considered to be jade, being collected for export to China (Palmer 1967: 11; Wills 1972: 19). Most, if not all, of what was mined at this site was nephrite. Some authors assert that there was at least some jadeite obtained by the Chinese from these sources. Thus, Norman Lewis (1952: 210) recounts: "In the original quarries in Turkestan a certain small amount of green jadeite was also found. By virtue of its rarity this green stone became practically priceless." Others, however, are skeptical. Dohrenwend (1971: 11), for instance, states categorically that "there is no evidence for jadeite in China in such early times, nor was the colder, harder stone ever loved there in the way that nephrite was." Likewise, Whitlock and Ehrmann (1949: 21) state that "for twenty centuries... nephrite was the only jade known to Chinese lapidaries" and Wills (1972: 21) says that "at present there is no evidence that it [jadeite] was known or used in China prior to the mid-eighteenth century."

       Hansford (1968: 28) agrees that jadeite does not appear to have been imported to China until the eighteenth century, when it began to be brought to China from Burma via Yunnan. Significantly, he notes that "a contemporary Chinese writer regarded it as having merely 'usurped the name of yü', but the brilliant emerald-green colour of some of the finer specimens soon earned it a place in public esteem as high as that of nephrite." Hansford adds (1968: 28-29) that "an old name, jei-ts'ui, 'plummage of the kingfisher', which had been applied at least as early as the eleventh century to certain fine green nephrites but had passed out of currency, was revived to distinguish the new material. This is the name by which it is still known throughout China. The belief that Burmese jadeite was carved in China in much earlier times appears to rest on a confusion of the two uses of the term jei-ts'ui" (this point is discussed by Hansford earlier in a 1948 article). He supports this argument for the absence of jadeite prior to the eighteenth century by drawing attention to use of nephrite rather than jadeite in the crown of the empress Wan-li, who was buried in 1620. Only later was jadeite used in such royal regalia, when it largely supplanted nephrite.

       A variety of sources provide illustrations of examples of Chinese jadeite. Boda (1991: 171-172) discusses and illustrates a jadeite box from the Qing court in the shape of a fish. He describes the piece in one place as "white mingled with blue in colour" and elsewhere as having a "green-white tone", but from the photograph the piece appears to be a light lavender. Bernstein (www.bernsteinjadeart.com) illustrates and describes a pair of crouching boys carved of jadeite and used as pillows (Ref. #2737). The pieces are said to date from 1780-1820. He mentions a similar pair os jadeite pillows featured in a Sotheby's auction (2 December 1976, lot 726) in Hong Kong and again in a Christie's auction (2 October 1991) in Hong Kong. According to Bartholomew (1999: 42), "the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco holds one of the world's most comprehensive and best collections of Chinese jades."[3] The collection is comprised largely of pieces collected by Avery Brundage (1887-1975). While most of the pieces in the colection are made of nephrite, a few are made of jadeite. The relative lack of jadeite pieces in the collection would appear to reflect the fact that "Mr Brundage was not interested in personal adornment in jades" (1999: 47), which is the most common use of jadeite. Bartholomew illustrates a few of the jadeite pieces in her article. These include a cabbage vase dating from around 1900 (appearing on the cover of the magazine) and a box with melon, vegetable, and insects also dating from around 1900 (figure 14, page 48). The later is made of jadeite featuring three colors and is said to be a fine example of "the qiaose or 'clever use of colours' tradition" (1999: 47).

       It is common in the literature to date the earliest discovery of jadeite in Burma (in the Mogaung area in the Myitkyina district) to the thirteenth century. Traditions say that these deposits were discovered by accident by a trader from Yunnan. According to the story, the trader used a piece of stone to balance a load on his mule. The stone turned out to be jadeite. This is probably nothing more than an apocryphal story, however. Hansford (1950: 45-46) casts doubt on the authenticity of story and Wills (1972: 22) refers to it as a legend with no supporting evidence. The source of this fanciful story was a Mr. Warry of the Chinese Consular Service, who  accompanied a British military expedition to the mining area in 1888, two years after the British annexation of Upper Burma. Warry presented the story after his visit in a report on the jadeite mining industry, which was published subsequently by Hertz in 1912 in the Burma Gazetteer: Myitkyina District and again by Scott in his influential Burma: A Handbook of Practical Information (1921: 243). Despite the likely falsehood of the tale, it has continued to be repeated in the literature on jadeite in Burma (see Fraser-Lu 1994: 173, 185; Hughes, Galibert, et al 2000: 4-5).

       Mr. Warry was on somewhat firmer ground when he reported that the modern trade in jadeite between Burma and China began in 1784, during the reign of the emperor Ch'ien-lung (1736 to 1796), following the ending of hostilities between the two countries. Hansford (1968: 45-46) states that after a series of unsuccessful attempts by the Chinese to subdue Burma, they were driven out in 1769. With the ending of hostilities, trade between the two countries was re-established. Warry dates the beginning of trade in jadeite to 1784, when a large number of Chinese came to Burma in search of jade. Many of those who came to search for jade died, either from malaria or as a result of hostile encounters with local groups such as the Jingpho. In addition, the route back to China from Mogaung was dangerous because of the difficult terrain and presence of bandits. In his account of jadeite mining in Burma (quoted in Hertz 1912), Warry makes the following comment regarding the loss of life among the Chinese: "In the Chinese temple at Amarapura is a long list containing the names of upwards of 6,000 Chinese traders deceased in Burma since the beginning of the present century to whom funeral rites are yearly paid. The large majority of these men are known to have lost their lives in the search for jade... Could the number of smaller traders and adventurers who perished in the same enterprise be ascertained, the list would be swelled to many times its present size." Warry discusses the early mine sites exploited in northern Burma, mentioning in particular the "Hsimu quarries" in the Uru river valley which "were first discovered in 1790" and "yielded a very brilliant jade."

       Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 5) associate the acceptance of Burmese jadeite with the emperor Qianlong (also spelled Ch'ien-lung). During his reign, however, the trade in jadeite was small and it seems that the stones when brought to China at this time received only a lukewarm reception. It would seem that it took almost a century for Burmese jadeite to achieve the status of a valuable and desired stone. Field (2000: 3) notes that "it was probably due to the old empress dowager Tz'u Hsi [also spelled Wu Cixi, who in effect ruled China from 1861-1908], who loved its bright, vivid colors, that it finally reached pre-eminence as the Imperial Stone, or most precious thing, in China." In fact, prior to Wu Cixi's reign relatively few objects were fashioned from Burmese jadeite. Ward (1996: 24) writes that

 

as Burma's jadeite supplies increased in the 1800s, carvings appeared. Soon jadeite animals, objects, and gems outshone nephrite. For the past two hundred years (and disregarding the 5,000 years that preceded them) jadeite has been the preeminent stone and gem within China. It seems that no one objected to the culture's central substance being supplanted by a totally different material. Perhaps calling both yü eased the transition. 

Thus, while jade in general may have a long history in China, the history of jadeite in China should be seen as much more recent— as essentially modern.

       As for the Burmese themselves, Faser-Lu (1994: 174) comments that "apart from levying duties, the Kon-baung kings [the ruling dynasty in Burma at the time] took little interest in the development of jade mining." Warry's 1888 account (quoted in Hertz 1912) of the jadeite industry discusses the system of taxation:

In 1806 a Burmese Collectorate was established at the site of what is now the town of Mogaung... Mogaung now became the headquarters of the jade trade in Burma... The Burmese Collector imposed no tax upon the stone until it was ready to leave Mogaung, when he levied an ad valorem duty of 33 per cent... The value of jade was determined for purposes of taxation by an official appraiser. This officer, however, by private arrangement with the traders and the Collector, estimated all stone about one-third of its real value. 

In fact, the Burmese kings did try to become more involved. Clearly attracted by the prospect of gaining greater revenue from the trade, the Burmese king sought to establish a monopoly over commerce in jadeite in 1866. The Jingpho responded by cutting the supply to a trickle of poor quality material and the following year the Burmese king was forced to resume the original practice of simply levying a tax. In general, throughout this period the actual mining of jadeite was in the hands of the local Jingpho. Warry comments that : 

The Kachins [Jingpho] have always claimed the exclusive right of digging at the mines. They have, however, from time to time allowed Shans to assist them, and in the early days Chinese were permitted to work certain quarries temporarily abandoned by the Kachins. The Chinese, however, found the labour severe and the results unsatisfactory, and they have now for many years contented themselves with buying stone brought to the surface by Kachins. 

As Warry notes, however, the Chinese traders did not act alone when purchasing jadeite from the Jingpho: "An expert, or middleman, is nearly always employed to settle the price. These middlemen, who are without exception Burmese or Burmese-Shans, have from early times been indispensable to the transaction of business at the mines." 

       The modern history of jadeite mining in Burma begins in the nineteenth century, around the same time that the mineral was becoming popular in China, and was associated primarily with a site known as Tawmaw. Jadeite may have been mined earlier, however. Jade beads have been found that are associated with the Pyu civilization of Burma (roughly 200 BC to 500 AD) as far north as the Pyu city-state of Hanlin that is located near the present town of Shwebo. These are generally assumed to be nephrite or some related stone, but further research is needed. The mining was largely carried out by local Jingpho (as well as by some Shan) and the trade by Chinese. Warry, states in his 1888 account (quoted in Hertz 1912) that:

Comparatively few Chinese actually went up to the mines; the Kachins themselves brought down most of the stone to a sand bank opposite Mogaung, where a large bazaar was held during the season... As for the mines themselves, "The Kachins [were] regarded as the absolute owners of all the stone produced in their country. This ownership was never directly called in question by the King of Burma.

       Chhibber (1934: 43) provides a story that he collected from local informants about the modern origins of mining in this area: "about sixty years ago a hunter named Ninjar of Sanhka reached the site of Tawmaw while hunting, and started cooking rice on a range of stones. One of the stones cracked, and proved to be valuable jadeite." He records another story collected by a British administrator in 1907 that associates the discovery with a Jingpho hunter who was tracking a wounded elephant. After killing the elephant, he tried to knock some flesh from its tusks on a rock. One of the tusks cracked the rock, which turned out to contain jadeite.

       Whatever actually happened, by the early nineteenth century the local Jingpho and others were mining for jadeite in the vicinity of Tawmaw. Hansford (1968: 46) writes that "the stone was at first extracted in the form of pebbles and boulders... from the detritus in the valleys of the Uru River and its tributaries. Warry, in his 1888 account (quoted in Hertz 1912), discusses what came to be generally referred to as the 'old mines' located adjacent to the Uru River:

Small quantities of jade have at one time or another been discovered over nearly the whole of this tract, but the stone occurs in greatest abundance at places near to the right bank of the Uru and considerable quantities have been found in the bed of that stream. The names of the quarries most celebrated in times past for the excellence of their output are Hsimu [now Sate Mu], Masa, Mopang and Tamukan [located near Haungpa]. All these places appear to be within the boundaries given above and to lie at no great distance from one another. They have all ceased to yield jade except in minute quantities, and they are now termed the ‘old mines,’ Sanka being the latest name added to this list.

Sanka... was reached after a march of some seventy miles from Mogaung in a direction almost exactly north-west... Sanka is situated on the right bank of the Uru just opposite its junction with the Nansant stream. Some twenty years ago Sanka was celebrated for its output of fine jade, but the supply has long been exhausted, and the place is now almost deserted. I spent the greater part of a day in visiting the excavations of former years. Thousands of pits had been dug along the sides of the low hills and in the small intervening valleys. The diameter of the pits rarely exceeded ten or twelve feet at the mouth, and the average depth was about twelve feet... Sanka is the last of the 'old mines'.

The earliest account of the Burmese jadeite mines in Western sources that is mentioned by Bleeck (1908: 254) was written in 1836 by Captain Hannay, who obtained specimens of jadeite from Mogaung during his visit to the Assam frontier (Hannay 1837, and see Hannay 1857). Hannay, however, did not visit the actual mines. Dr. William Griffith (1847: 132) was the first Westerner to visit the nearby mining area. Even at that early date, he noticed that "the surface of the valley apparently at one time consisted of low rounded hillocks; it is now much broken, and choked up with the earth and stones that have been thrown up by excavating." He reported that the larger jadeite boulders were broken apart by fire. After leaving the mining area a member of his party counted a large number of people transporting jadeite rocks, the majority of them being Chinese Shan.

       More substantial jadeite mining did not commence until 1881 (Hansford 1968: 46). These mines came to be referred to as the 'new mines'. Warry (1888, quoted in Hertz 1912) has this to say about them:

The 'new mines' have produced immense quantities of stone, but none which approaches in quality that yielded by the quarries of former years. It will be convenient here to indicate briefly by points of difference between the old stone and the new. The value of jade is determined mainly by the colour, which should be a particular shade of dark green. The colour however, is by no means everything; semi-transparency, brilliancy, and hardness are also essential. Stone which satisfies these four conditions is very rare. The last three qualities were possessed to perfection by a large proportion of the old stone, but the dark-green colour was rare and often absent altogether. The new stone, on the other hand, possess abundant colour, but is defective in the other three respects, being as a rule opaque, dull and brittle in composition. These natural defects are aggravated by the injurious methods employed in quarrying the new stone. A peculiarity which gave high value to all stone found at the old mines was that [it] occurred in the form of moderate size round lumps, having often the appearance of water-worn boulders, and small enough to be detached and carried away without undergoing any rough process of cleavages on the spot. At the new mines the stone occurs in immense blocks which cannot be quarried out by any tools possessed by the Kachins [Jingpho], but have to be broken up by the application of heat, a process which, without doubt, tends to make the stone more brittle and chalk-like.

These defects were not fully realized the first year that the new mines were opened. The output of stone was large and the competition keen. Hitherto only men of some capital had been able to engage regularly in the trade. It had been impossible to do more than guess at the value of any old stone, for each piece was complete in itself and was usually protected by a thick outer capsule which effectually concealed the colour within. All pieces therefore fetched a high price, as any piece might on cutting prove to be of immense value. But with the opening of the new mines, stone could not be bought in fragments of any shape and size, and it was possible by the processes of washing and holding in a strong light to determine with comparative exactitude the amount and nature of the colour. The trade was thus brought within the means of a large number of men who had not before been in a position to take part in it. There was accordingly a rush for the new mines in 1881, and the speculation in jade reached a height not attained before. Large fortunes were made by those who had the good luck to dispose of their stone before its defects were discovered. In the second year there was a heavy fall in prices, which involved the ruin of more than one of the largest jade merchants.

       The first geologist to see the jadeite mines was F. Noetling, who visited the Tawmaw area in 1892 (Noetling 1893; also see Bauer 1895). Noetling's work for a time provided the primary published source of information on the mining area. Noetling noted, however, that his survey was incomplete due to the unsettled state of the country at the time and the difficult terrain. A subsequent visit was made by A.W.G. Bleeck in 1907 (Bleeck 1908) and he provided a more detailed account of the mining industry in the region. According to Bleeck (1908: 255), jadeite was found in three localities at the time of his visit: "at Tawmaw, at Hwéka, and at Mamoa," with Tawmaw being by far the most important site. He notes (page 256) that "these mines are only worked about three months in the year form the beginning of March till the end of May; during the rains malaria stops all work" (although because the quarries north of Hweka were located at a higher elevation it was possible to commence mining a little earlier there). Hertz (1912) provides a description of the jadeite mines a short time later and lists seven mine sites in operation: Tawmaw, Ngobin, Mamon, Sabyi, Papyen, Sabwi, and Pakhan. Tawmaw is still described as "the most important of the mines," with  "over fifty claims being worked" by local Jingpho. The other sites are much smaller in scale. He notes that the mining operation at Mamon is in the hands of Shan, unlike most other mines.

       The initial reports by Noetling and Bleeck were superseded in the 1930s by the account of Chhibber (1934), which remains the most comprehensive published work on the area to date. Chhibber  (1934: 47) reports that during the first two decades of the twentieth century the output of the Tawmaw mines went into decline: "chiefly on account of the increasing depth of the mines" and the inability of the Jinhpho to cope with this using their traditional methods. Elsewhere, Chhibber describes numerous other sites being mined, including some by more modern techniques (such as Kadon Dwin site mined by the Burchin Syndicate).

       Jadeite mining in Burma was disrupted by the outbreak of the Second World War and the Japanese occupation of Burma. Travel writer Norman Lewis visited the jadeite mining area in 1951 (Lewis 1952: 211-212). At the time jadeite mining was again monopolized by the local Jingpho and all of what they found was exported to China. With the communist takeover in China, Lewis (1954: 212) predicted that "it seems likely that the jade mania may have come to an abrupt end. Production at Mogaung was entirely for the Chinese market, the stone being otherwise valueless. It is difficult to imagine that China's present rulers [the communists] would sanction this type of import." Even before then, following the 1911 revolution, there had been a decline in the jadeite market. While there were signs of recovery during the inter-war years, Communist rule in China and continued instability in northern Burma put a damper on production and demand for jadeite. I will discuss more recent developments towards the end of the paper.

Properties and Identification of Jadeite

Jadeite is a silicate belonging to this group's inosilicate subdivision. Jadeite belongs to the pyroxene group of minerals within this subdivision, along with about two dozen other minerals (see Morimoto, Fabries, et al 1988; Hauff 1993: 85). The latter include aegirine, diopside, enstatite, and spodumene (hiddenite and kunzite). Curtiss (1993: 75) remarks that "the pyroxenes are one of the most complicated mineral groups known." Jadeite's chemical composition includes sodium, aluminum, and  silicon. Jadeite's ideal composition is NaAl(Si203)2. It can be described as "a sodium-rich aluminous pyroxene" (www.geo.utexas, pg. 1). Jadeitic pyroxene usually is not pure (pure jadeite being indicated as Jd100) and in such a state is found in only a few places in the world (discussed below). It is more typical for it to contain other pyroxenes mixed in solid solution such as diopside (CaMgSi2O6), kosmochlor (NaCrSi2O6), hedenbergite (CaFe2+Si2O6), and aegirine (NaFe3+Si2O6). Jadeitic pyroxene usually constitutes at least 90% to 95% of the rock that it is found in. The other minerals found in jadeite include sodic amphibole (with varying compositions: e.g., eckermannite, glaucophane, richterite, and edenite), albite, analcime, tremolite, (ilmeno-) rutile, clinochlore, banalsite, and chromite (see Harlow and Olds 1987; Htein and Naing 1994, and 1995). Ou Yang (1993) notes that jadeite may be partly replaced by fibrous tremolite or actinolite in the course of late-stage metasomatism. Such polymineralic jadeite is polychromatic and commonly is white with gray-green to blackish green specks or streaks. It is rare for this form of jadeite to be green and to exhibit relatively even color distribution. Jadeite commonly occurs with serpentine, nepheline, calcite, quartz, aragonite, glaucuphane, and vesuvianite. Jadeite's crystal system is monoclinic. It is composed of fine-grained, fibrous, highly inter-grown, interlocking crystals. Though jadeite is not very hard (measuring 6.5 to 7 on the Moh's scale), it is one of the toughest gem minerals known because of the inter-grown nature of the individual crystals. When fractured it is splintery and brittle. Jadeite ranges in appearance from opaque to translucent transparency and its luster from "greasy to pearly" (Hall 1994: 124).

       Colours of Jadeite. The mineral jadeite is allochromatic and, therefore, transparent and colorless in its pure form. Even such "pure" jadeite, however, usually appears to be white as a result of the scattering of light by fractures, openings on grain boundaries, and tiny aqueous fluid inclusions. In addition to white, jadeite comes in a variety of colors. The colors of jadeite found in Burma include a variety of shades of green ranging from very pale green to emerald-green, pale blue, pale violet or lavender, yellow, orange, burnt-sienna red, gray, and brown. Chhibber (1934: 67) provides an early description of the colors found in jadeite:

 

Jadeite varies from pure white to various shades of green. Not infrequently green spots or streaks are observed in the white varieties. Other less common tints are amethystine, light-blue, bright-red, brownish and black. The bright-red and brownish tints are observed in a thin outer zone of jadeite boulders embedded in red earth, and the colour is due to the dissemination of ferruginous matter by percolating water. About one-third of an inch from the surface the red colour entirely disappears. This sections of red jadeite are seen to be stained red and yellow with hematite and limonite respectively.

 

Guatemalan jadeite has been found in a variety of shades of green (including emerald-green blue-green) as well as lavender, mottled white and blue, light yellow, pink, and black. There is also what is referred to as "rainbow jadeite", which features several colors.

       The colors in jadeite are caused by a couple of different factors. In a few instances colors are caused by mineral staining on grain boundaries. These include red-brown to orange-brown caused by hydrous iron oxides, some dark green streaks caused an iron compound, and gray or black caused by graphite staining. Most colors of jadeite, however, are due to substitutions of transition metal ions for the fundamental Al3+ and minor Mg2+ (from diopside content) in jadeitic pyroxene and the resultant presence of residues called chromophores (see Harder 1995). The emerald-green color of "Imperial Jade" or "gem jade" is due to the presence of a small amount of chromium (Cr3+). Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 6-7) note that "only a very small percentage of this minor element is required to induce the vivid color." Duller green colors as well as blue-green, bluish black, and blue-black jadeite are related to the presence of iron (either Fe2+ or Fe3+ or a mixture of the two). The darkest colors contain a relatively high percentage of iron oxide and closely resemble a pyroxene called omphacite. The term "leek green" is commonly applied to aggregates of jadeite and sodic amphiboles. According to Rossman (1974) and Ponahlo (1999), the lavender color is attributed to a Fe2+—O—Fe3+ intervalence charge transfer in nearly pure jadeite. The mauve color in jadeite is related to the presence of manganese.

       The above discussion is based largely on studies of Burmese jadeite. Curtiss (1993: 77) provides an analysis of some of the colors found in Mesoamerican jadeite (from Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Costa Rica) based on spectroscopic examination:

 

The emerald green color is caused by the intense absorption of blue and red light by Cr3+ contained in a small component of ureyite in a solid solution with jadeite. Some additional absorption of blue light is from Fe3+... The pale green color is caused by absorption of red light by a small amount of Fe3+ contained as an impurity in the M1 and M2 crystallographic sites of the jadeite. This absorption feature is much broader than the one produced by Cr3+; therefore, the color produced is much more subdued. The absorption of blue light is from the presence of Fe3+... The bluish green color is caused by the absence of Fe3+...

 

In a table on the same page Curtiss associates the following colors with the presence of the certain elements: pink with manganese2+, emerald green with chromium3+, pale green with iron2+, and brown and red with iron3+.

       Burmese Jadeite. Lacroix (1930) provides perhaps the earliest detailed analysis of the composition of Burmese jadeite. Thus, he describes two stones from Tawmaw as follows. The first stone is described as jadeitic-albitite. Its composition is: 59.42% SiO2, 10.81% Al2O3, 10.69% MgO, 8.01% Na2O, 4.3% CaO, and small proportions of FeO, Fe2O3, H2O, K2O, TiO2, and MnO. The second stone is described as jadeite and amphibolite-bearing albitite. Its composition is: 66.3% SiO2, 19.94% Al2O3, 11.25% Na2O, and very small proportions of CaO, MgO, FeO, Fe2O3, H2O, K2O, and MnO. Three other stones (two from Tawmaw and one from the Kadon mine) discussed by Lacroix are categorized as amphibolites (one as amphibolite bearing chrome-jadeite). Chhibber (1934: 70), however, comments that "they are not altogether happily named" and "they are not amphibolites in the commonly accepted sense." He views them as being of "hybrid origin". The so-called amphibolite from the Kadon mine is 56.18% SiO2, 16.97% MgO, 9.18% Na2O, and 7.37% Al2O3, with smaller proportions of Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, CaO, K2O, and H2O. The second "amphibolite" contains the same elements, but in slightly different proportions: 55.82% SiO2, 21.2% MgO, 9.12% Na2O, and only 2.56% Al2O3, with somewhat larger proportions of Fe2O3 and H2O, and roughly similar proportions of the other elements. The stone described as an "amphibolite bearing chrome jadeite has the following composition: 57.52% SiO2, 13.37% MgO, 9.57% Al2O3, 8.83% Na2O, 4.5% FeO, and smaller proportions of the other elements found in the first two stones.

       There have been a handful of subsequent studies of the chemical compositions of Burmese jadeite specimens. One of the more recent and most comprehensive studies is that by Htein and Naing (1994). The specimens in their sample come from the mining areas of Hpakan, Lonkin, Tawmaw, Nantmaw, Whay Khar Maw, Haungpa, and Khamti and include a wide range of colors: "from white through grey to almost black, shades of green, dark green, emerald green, lavender, yellowish through brown to reddish-brown, bluish and greyish blue-green" (page 270). Portions of the samples were subjected to X-ray diffraction analysis to determine their mineral composition. The composition of monomineralic (pure jadeite) specimens include: jadeite, jadeite ± rutile/ilmenorutile, and jadeite ± chromite/magnesiochromite ± rutile. The composition of polymineralic (impure jadeite) specimens include: jadeite + edenite + richterite ± chromite, jadeite + kosmochlor ± ilmenorutile, jadeite + enstatite + tremolite, and jadeite + tremolite + edenite + richterite + kosmochlor ± ilmenorutile. About two-thirds of the twenty-five specimens are pure jadeite and the remaining one-third impure jadeite. Next, fifteen specimens were subject to wavelength dispersive examination by an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (page 271). The values for SiO2 range from 59.80 to 56.14, for Al2O3 from 24.18 to 15.34, and for Na2O from 15.52 to 11.65 (with one specimen containing only 5.66%). Other oxides include: Cr2O3 (1.16 to 0.03), Fe2O3 (2.34 to 0.93), MgO (one with 9.88, otherwise from 3.17 to 0.01), CaO (one with 10.84, otherwise from 5.40 to 0.33), and K2O (all <0.01). Some of the greatest variation was found in four of the specimens that were pyroxene-amphibole jades. Among the trace elements found by the X-ray fluorescence tests were Ti, Sr, Zr, Nb, Ni, and Zn (page 274). By way of conclusion, the authors note that "the present study demonstrates that jade of Myanmar may include a much wider range in mineral constituents and chemical composition than was previously recognized" (page 274).

       Mesoamerican Jadeite. In his famous study of the Maya, archaeologist Sylvanus Morley (1956: 414) wrote:

 

a study of Middle American jades by mineralogists of the Carnegie Institution of Washington [see Washington 1922] has shown that American jades are true jadeites, though their chemical composition differs from that of Chinese jadeite. The variation is not sufficient to place them outside the true jadeite group, but it makes them differ somewhat in appearance from Chinese jades. American jade is not so translucent as Chinese [i.e., Burmese] jade; it varies from dark green to light blue-green, through all shades of gray and into white; it is more mottled than Chinese jade.

 

More recently, Anna Miller (2001: 29) has noted that "although some individual pieces of Guatemalan jadeite cannot be separated from their Burmese counterparts (particularly after they are worked into jewelry), the majority of materials have distinct color and often textural differences.

       In the 1950s, the Smithsonian Institution's curator of geology, William Foshag, recognized (1957: 23) that Mesoamerican artifacts generically referred to as jade could be divided into four main mineralogical forms: 1) jadeite, 2) diopside-jadeite ("a mineral species of the pyroxene group of minerals, intermediate between jadeite and diopside, essentially a silicate of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum"), 3) chloromelanite ("a mineral species of the pyroxene group of minerals, intermediate between jadeite and acmite, or jadeite, acmite, and diopside, essentially a silicate of sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum"), and 4) nephrite. In comparing jade artifacts from various locales around the Maya area, Foshag identified seven forms: 1) the so-called "blue" jadeite associated with the Olmec, 2) the pale greenish jadeite from the Quiche region, 3) the emerald-green to apple-green jadeite found in many Guatemalan sites, 4) a gray-green jadeite frequently used for making celts (edged implements), 5) dark green chloromelanite used for making a variety of utilitarian objects, and two other types that seem to represent gradations between other types. Bishop, Rands, and Zelst (1985) have also categorized Mesoamerican jadeites in this fashion. Harlow (1993: 27) summarizes these two systems of classification and compares them to rocks found in Guatemala (see the table at the top of the following page).

       The jadeite pebble found in central Mexico mentioned above has a composition of 87% jadeite, 11% diopside, and 2% acmite (Cook de Leonard 1971: 212). Another source (Borhegyi 1971: 4) also mentions Mayan ornaments from highland Guatemala being made of albite.

 

 

 

      Bishop Type                         Foshag Type                        Guatemalan Type

      Motagaua Light                    Types III & VI                     Jadeitite

      Motagua Dark                      Type V                                 Omphacite rock

      Chrome Green                      -                                            Kosmochloric omphacite rock

      Chichén Green                     Type I?                                 Kosmochloric jadeitite

      Maya Green                         Type I                                   Kosmochloric jadeitite

      Costa Rican Light?               Type II (Olmec Blue)           Jadeitite (alightly altered)

      Costa Rican Dark                 Type VII                               Omphacite rock (Motagua-II)

                                                                                                     to black jade

      Albite Light                          Albite                                    Albitite 1

      Albite Dark                           Albite                                    Albitite 1

      -                                            Type IV                                Altered jadeitite

      -                                            -                                            Albitite 2

 

Table 3.1: Systems of Classification of Guatemalan Jade

(after Harlow 1993: 27)

 

       Easby (1968: 15) discusses the properties of the jadeite found in Costa Rica. She compares it to that employed by the Olmec of the Gulf coast of Mexico. The Costa Rican jadeite is described as being "amorphous rather than crystalline" with an extraordinary translucence." In terms of color, she describes the colors as ranging from "bluish to sea-green hues like those of a cresting wave." The stones often have light cloudy spots and "sometimes there are flecks or veins of the deep intense emerald green that the Chinese call... imperial or jewel jade." She also mentions (1968: 16) "an almost opaque off-white jade, finely speckled and tending toward buff, gray, or green" and states that "X-ray diffraction patterns made for two examples showed them to be composed mainly of albite, with admixture of quartz and jadeite."

       A relatively comprehensive study of the composition of Mesoamerican jadeite and other "green" stones is provided by Bishop, Sayre, and Mishara (1993), who utilized INAA to study the stones (they describe their sampling techniques on pages 35-37). Their sample included 155 stones collected in the vicinity of the Motagua River valley. Archaeological specimens tested are from several sites in central and northern Belize, Chichén Itzá in Yucatan, Copán and El Cajón in Honduras, and 130 pieces are from numerous localities in Costa Rica. They divide the jade samples into seven groups: 1) Motagua Light, light green color; 2) Motagua Dark, green-black color (basically omphacite); 3) Maya Green, emerald green; 4) Costa Rican Light; 5) Costa Rican Dark; 6) Chichén Green (defined in 1985 as different from jadeite found in the Motagua River Valley, but later similar jade was found in the Motagua River Valley); and 7) Miscellaneous.

       They turn first to their findings related to the first three categories. The first two of these are "easily differentiated chemically from the group of samples designated Maya Green" which have "significantly higher chromium values" (page 42). The authors also point to significant differences in the cobalt content in the three categories of stone. Overall they characterize the stones in these categories as follows (page 43):

 

The Motagua Light samples can be characterized as consisting of major abundances of jadeite and albite, with occurrences of prargonite and analsite... The Motagua Dark specimens contain less abundant jadeite, major abundances of omphacite, and variable amounts of analcite. In contrast, the analyzed Maya Green samples possess abundant jadeite, trace omphacite, and relatively low abundances of albite, muscovite, and analcite.

 

Data are provided about the chemical composition of a number of the stones belonging to these three categories (page 45). A sample of eight Motagua Light stones have the following characteristics: 58.91% Si02, 24.6% Al2O3, 12% Na2O, 1.97% CaO, 1.29% MgO, 1.01% FeO, and traces of Cr2O3, K2O, and MnO. A sample of seven Maya Green stones have the following characteristics: 57.5% Si02, 20.0% Al2O3, 10.7% Na2O, 4.78% CaO, 3.84% MgO, 1.20% FeO, 0.32% Cr2O3, and traces of K2O and MnO. A sample of five Motagua Dark Omphacite stones have the following characteristics: 53.8% Si02, 14.4% Al2O3, 6.2% Na2O, 10.36% CaO, 7.46% MgO, 2.32% FeO, 0.10% Cr2O3, and traces of K2O and MnO.

       On the basis of electron beam microprobe analysis the authors plot the relative jadeite composition in the various samples (see fig. 2.3, page 49). Among the findings is that: "The Costa Rican Light specimens all lie near the pure jadeite corner, and the Maya Green are close to the jadeite-omphacite boundary." Chichén Green falls in between. Later in their chapter (page 58), the authors discuss the distinctiveness of the Costa Rican samples, which have a tendency towards a bluish-green color (like the so-called Olmec pieces), from those found elsewhere. Their distinctiveness mineralogically is related to "the virtual absence of mica and the low albite content in the Costa Rican specimens."

       Tests. Let us now turn to some of the tests that can be used to identify jadeite. Hobbs (1982) lists several tests: visual examination, refractive index readings, specific gravity determination, spectroscopic analysis, hardness tests, and X-ray diffraction. To this could be added the use of a Chelsea filter. In regard to the latter, it is interesting to note that while green jadeite's color is derived from the presence of chromium, it "does not show red under the Chelsea filter, nor does it do so under either LW or SW UV light" (Field 2000: 3). Under long-wave ultra-violet light "the paler coloured green and the yellow, mauve and white jadeite shows a whitish glow of low intensity, the darker coloured jadeite being unresponsive." Among the tests discussed by Hobbs, we will review all except for hardness tests since such tests are rarely used for jadeite. Hobbs (1982: 18) indicates that such tests are not very useful for jadeite and "would only help separate materials that have a hardness value that is significantly lower than jade, such as serpentine, calcite, and talc."

       Turning first to visual examination, Hobbs (1982: 6-7) remarks:

 

Visual examination of a jade-appearing material may yield significant identifying clues such as texture, surface luster, and fracture, as well as characteristic inclusions, evidence of dye, the presence of phenomena, and possibly other distinguishing characteristics. All these visual characteristics contribute to the typical appearance of a gemstone, thus allowing the gemologist with a well-trained eye to limit the range of possibilities quickly after an initial examination of the material. But even experts support the suppositions they make after a visual examination with standard gemological tests.

 

Among the characteristics of jadeite to note here concern its texture, surface luster, and fracture surface. In terms of its texture, it should be noted that jadeite is a very tough material. This is related to its internal structure. Differences in the structure of jadeite and nephrite, for example, can be seen under magnification: jadeite crystals appear as separate entities, while the crystals of nephrite appear to be woven together. This manifests itself visually, as noted by Hobbs (1982: 9), with jadeite looking granular and nephrite fibrous. Both jadeite and nephrite exhibit a slightly greasy luster, but nephrite tends to be greasier in its appearance than jadeite. Turning to the fracture surface of jadeite, Hobbs (1982: 10) describes jadeite and nephrite as exhibiting a "splintery fracture, which looks like the surface of a broken piece of wood." This characteristic, however, is more common with nephrite than jadeite. Unfortunately, several jadeite simulants also show similar characteristics. By and large, the value of visual examination is relatively limited in positively identifying jadeite. Hobbs (1982: 13) uses such terms as providing "valuable indications" and "suppositions" and concludes that these ned to be confirmed through gemological tests. We will look at the differences in appearance between jadeite and its simulants further in the section of simulants.

       Jadeite's refractive index is about 1.66. Hall (1994: 124) gives it as 1.66-1.68, while Schumann (1997: 154) give it as 1.652-1.688. Field (2000: 3) reports that the mean refractive index of jadeite is 1.66 (alpha 1.654; gamma 1.667)" and notes that "this mean can be determined quite readily by the distant vision method." Read (1999: 281) states that "only [a] single vague shadow edge [is] visible on [the] refractometer at 1.66 due to [the] random orientation of crystal fibres." Hobbs (1982: 13) states that "the refractometer is one of the most helpful instruments in separating jadeite from its simulants." This is because almost all of these simulants have refractive indices that are significantly different than jadeite's. The problem is that jadeite and most of its simulants are usually cut with a round surface in such a way that their shapes make it difficult to obtain readings with a refractometer. This necessitates using the "spot technique" or "distant vision method." Hobbs (1982: 13) describes the spot technique as follows: "The spot technique requires that a portion of the curved surface be placed or held on the refractometer with a small drop of liquid, the size of which is reduced until the image that is seen without the eyepiece magnifier is only two or three scale increments."

       Jadeite is doubly refractive. According to Field, the birefringence is 0.013. Other sources give somewhat different numbers: Hall (1994: 124) gives 0.012 and Schumann (1997: 154) gives 0.020. However, Hobbs (1982: 13) warns that "it is rare to see the full spread of refractive indices listed on the property chart because" jadeite is a crystalline aggregate and "only one refractive index is easily resolved with the spot technique." To obtain a birefringence reading, Hobbs (1982: 14) recommends using the birefrengence blink technique that involves rotating a polaroid plate in front of the refractometer. This technique is illustrated and described by Hobbs (1982: 13, fig. 13).

       Jadeite has a specific gravity of 3.33-3.35. Field (2000: 3) reports that "most jadeite...will remain suspended or very slowly sink in methylene iodide (di-iodomethane) that has a density of about 3.32-3.33 at normal room temperature." Hobbs (1982: 15) also recommends using methylene iodide when testing for jadeite and warns that "jadeite, and many jade-like materials, may contain impurities that will cause the specific gravity to vary. Hobbs (1982: 15) also notes that while three common jadeite simulants (grossularite, zoisite, and idocrase) have specific gravity values that can be confused with jadeite's all of them have refractive indices that are a good deal lower than jadeite's.

       Spectroscopic analysis is a useful means of identifying jadeite. Moreover, as noted by Hobbs (1982: 15), "the spectroscope is helpful in that both cut and rough, as well as mounted or loose, materials can be tested." Read (1999: 281) discusses the appearance of jadeite when examined with a spectroscope (also see Hobbs 1982: 15-17; Webster 1975: 228; Walker 1991: 39-40). He states that there is a "diagnostic line in the blue; chrome-rich jadeite has a doublet in the red, and two bands in the red-yellow. Stained jadeite has a band in the orange and one in the yellow-green (plus the diagnostic line at 437 nm)." Field (2000: 3) adds additional detail:

 

green jadeite shows several bands in the violet, the strongest being at 437 nm. It is intense enough to be discerned by reflected light and by transmitted light if the material is not too opaque or too dark in colour to transmit well. Naturally green jadeite also shows three chromium lines somewhat resembling steps or louvres in the red, at about 630, 660 and 690 nm; but above this is a light zone from about 670 to the end of the visible spectrum. In the "natural green" spectrum just described, there is nothing but darkness above the 690 nm band. Note however, that the band at 437 nm is present in both the natural and dyed examples.

 

Huang (1999) provides data on the characteristics exhibited by jadeite when examined with a Raman spectroscope:

 

The Raman modes of jadeite are 292 and 328 cm-1 (Na-O stretching mode); 374, 416, 434 and 576 cm-1 (Al-O vibrational modes); 524, 700, 779 cm-1 (Si-O bending modes) and 887, 986, 992 and 1040 cm-1 (Si-O stretching modes)... There is little variation in the wave number of Raman modes with substitution of iron and chromium in jadeite. Slope of the variation is negative with increasing substitution of iron and chromium.

 

Jadeite is studied along with fourteen other gem minerals and Huang provides a flow chart (page 311) showing identification procedures to separate one mineral from another. We shall return to the question of identifying dyed jadeite below in the section of treatment of jadeite.

       Both Hobbs (1982: 18) and Walker (1991: 41) note that the most precise test in jadeite identification involves X-ray diffraction by the powder method. However, as both authors point out, unfortunately this method is feasible only for sophisticated laboratories.

      

 

4.

 

5. Sources of Jadeite

 

Known sources of jadeite world-wide are relatively limited. The most important sources are located in Burma, Guatemala, Japan, and Kazakhstan. Jadeite is found in certain metamorphic rocks that have undergone metamorphism at high pressure but at relatively low temperature. More particularly, it is found in nodular or long-shaped masses in serpentinite, usually in the form of weathered boulders and cobbles in stream deposits or glacial sediment. Harlow (1993: 13-14) outlines some of the other primary geological features associated with jadeite-bearing serpentinite. He notes that "jadeites are usually a part of a larger suite of unusual rock types besides serpentinite, including albitites, blueschists, and altered eclogites, that are helpful in interpreting jadeite petrology and in recognizing or predicting its presence." In addition, "jadeite-bearing serpentinites are closely associated with large and possibly active fault zones that are major crustal boundaries (e.g., the San Andreas Fault) and involve mostly horizontal motion" and "most jadeite rocks occur in relatively young geologic terrain, Cretaceous age or younger (less than 100 million years)." In sum, Harlow (1993: 14) argues that "these facts strongly suggest a genetic relationship between plate tectonics... and the formation and surface appearance of jadeite rock."

       Burma. Most of the jadeite produced in the world at present comes from northern Burma. This has been the sole source of fine "Imperial" jadeite for several centuries. Bender (1983) describes the geology of the jadeite mining region in Burma. It is characterized by an extensive broken outcropping containing bodies of serpentinized peridotite (their age ranging from Late Cretaceous to Eocene). The serpentinites found here are surrounded by crystalline schists and plutonic rocks (such as granites and monzonites). Jadeite was formed independently of the intrusives by crystallization from hydrous fluids (there were derived by dewatering of the subducted Indian plate) that rose along fractures in the serpentinized peridotite at relatively high-pressure and low-temperature during the Tertiary formation of the Himalayas. Fluids that form in these special conditions are saturated with sodium aluminosilicates. The passage of these fluids through serpentinites generated jadeitite, albite-nephaline, and albitite dikes (jadeite being generated at higher pressure and albite at lower pressure). The dikes commonly have central zones of jadeite and outer rims of chlorite and amphibolite at the point of contact with the serpentinites (see Harlow and Olds 1987).

       This region commonly is referred to as the "Jade Tract" or "Jade Land." The latter term is roughly equivalent to the Burmese term for the region: Kyaukseinmyo.It is a rugged plateau located over 400 kilometers north of Mandalay. The main river in the area is the Uru, which serves roughly as the eastern boundary of the Jade Tract. The most important mining area in the region is located at Tawmaw (see Chhibber 1934: fig. 1, pg. 25), about 120 kilometers northwest of Mogaung. Mining has been going on in the Tawmaw area at least since the nineteenth century and Tawnaw is a source of most major varieties and colors of jadeite. Most of the jadeite from this area comes from secondary deposits in the Uru Boulder Conglomerate. The conglomerate is exposed over an area ranging in width from three to over six kilometers (the widest point being at Mamon) and up to 300 meters thick (see Chhibber 1934). There are a number of secondary deposits located west of the Uru River, such as those at Sate Mu, Hpakangyi (adjacent to Hpakan), and Maw-sisa.

       The town of Mogaung served as the primary jadeite trading center throughout most of the modern history of jadeite mining in the Jade Tract. Mogaung is located a little over 100 kilometers west of Myitkyina town. It served as a collection and storage center for rough jadeite. Here the material was graded prior to shipping. The importance of Mogaung has declined and Hpakan (also spelled Hpakant, Phakan, or Phakant) has emerged as the primary center in recent years. Hpakan lies along the Uru River some sixteen kilometers by road from Tawmaw.

       The Chindwin River serves roughly as the western boundary of the Jade Tract. At present the westernmost mine near the river is located at Lai Sai. Chhibber (1934: 24) mentions a mining site "on the banks of the Chindwin river" in the Hkamti area. Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 14-15) believe that Chhibber is referring "to the Nansibon mining region":

 

On an expedition to the jade mines by a group traveling under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History in January and February 2000, four geologists and two gemologists visited the mining area called Nansibon (Namsibum, Manhsibon). It was the first recorded visit by Western gemologists to this area. Located in the Sagaing Division, about 35 km (22 miles) southeast of the Chindwin River town of Hkamti, Nansibon is a group of joint-venture tracts that extend about 2 km along a north-south trending ridge in the middle of dense jungle (central location at N25°51'24", E95°51'30" determined by GPS measurements). The deposit is a steeply inclined (60°–90°E) serpentinite boulder conglomerate in which jadeite cobbles from a few centimeters to perhaps one meter in diameter are “concentrated” in a few narrow horizons. Mining is restricted to mechanized excavation of surface exposures of the conglomerate, which disappears both north and south under Tertiary river sands and lake sediments of the Chindwin basin. Now largely unworked, Natmaw (Nawmaw, Nathmaw) is a smaller area roughly 30 km south of Nansibon, where miners have explored jadeite dikes in serpentinite. As the road there was impassable and time was constrained, the group could not visit these latter mines.

According to current and retired officials from the Myanma Gems Enterprise (MGE), relative to the Jade Tract, Nansibon presently produces a large portion of the gem-quality Imperial jadeite mined in Burma, lesser amounts of other colors and “commercial” jadeite (used for carvings and bangles), and small amounts of “utility” jade (used for tiles, building veneers, and very large carvings...). During the recent visit, GEH and gemologist Robert Kane acquired a comprehensive suite of jadeite from Nansibon in colors including black and many shades of green, lavender, blue-green, “nearly blue,” and “carnelian orange”; these varied from translucent to semi-translucent. They saw numerous small (2–5 mm diameter) cabochons of translucent Imperial green jadeite from Natmaw."

 

Mines are located to the north near Kansi (Gin Si) and near Putao (over 300 kilometers north of Myitkyina). The latter site is mentioned by Chhibber (1934: 24), who reported that the site was relatively inaccessible and the quality of the jadeite here poor. Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 15) comment that "Putao appears to produce a different jade-like material, obviously with a different origin." They report that according to "U Shwe Maik, former director of jade acquisition for MGE,... the alleged jade from Putao is actually green massive hydrogrossular (now hibschite)." The southernmost mines are near Haung Par (Haungpa). To the east of the Uru River there are mining areas at Hwehka (Hweka) and Makapin. Hwehka is about twenty kilometers south of Hpakan along the Hwe River, with Makapin located a little to the east of Hwehka. Jadeite boulders are found in these areas in conglomerate inter-layered with blue-gray sands and coal seams (see Bleeck 1908; Chhibber 1934).

       A recent Mason-Kay newsletter (2000: 2) mentions that there are new mines that are producing "unusual varieties that are largely jadeite...(sometimes referred to as 'Te Lung Sing'); that is "reminiscent of a type of jadeite cut in late Ch'ing [Qing] dynasty timers and called 'coins'." The newsletter, however, does not say where these mines are located, but they appear to be within the traditional mining region.

       There is an interesting report of the discovery of a new jadeite dike in the Hpakan (Phakant) area. The dike is reported to be very large: "At 70 feet by 20 feet by 16 feet for an estimated mass of 2,000 tons, this dyke is a doozy" (Colored Stone, May/June, 2001, p. 120). The dike is in an area controlled by the Pa-O ethnic group (a sub-group of Karen). The local Pa-O who hold the rights to the dike are said to be charging admission to see it at present rather than mining it. A more recent report on this discovery (Colored Stone, November/December 2001, p. 14) places the weight of the "boulder" at 3,000 tons and quotes the deputy director of the government's Myanmar Gems Enterprise as saying that the government has not yet decided what to do about the bolder, but that it is likely the boulder will be cut up and all or part of it brought to Yangon for sale.

       Mesoamerica. Researchers have long been interested in finding the sources of ancient Mesoamerican jadeite. As late as 1964 Digby (1964: 14) commented that "no large deposits of jade are known anywhere in the Maya area, though it is not improbable that such deposits were known in the  Highlands of Guatemala and mined in [Prehispanic] Maya times." He mentions that a large jadeite stone weighing about 200 pounds was found in the archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu, from which fragments had been detached to make jewelry (see Kidder, et al 1946). Given the considerable variety in the nature of the jadeite that has been found around the Maya area and elsewhere in Mesoamerica it was considered likely that there were a number of sources. Rough jadeite was found in a couple of locations in the 1950s. Cook de Leonard (1971: 211-212) reviews the two locales where small amounts of jadeite were discovered. The first was a site in Guatemala near Manzanal, along the Motagua River in the departments of El Progresso and Zacapa, where "fine jadeite of a lichen-green color" was found (see Foshag 1955, 1957; Foshag and Leslie 1955; and Barbour 1957). The second location was a riverbed on the border of the Mexican states of Puebla and Oaxaca where an olive green jadeite pebble was found.

       Continued exploration since the 1950s has led to the discovery of additional sources of jadeite in Mesoamerica. By far the most important site, however, remains the Motagua River Valley. A search in Guatemala's Motagua River Valley in 1974 by archaeologist Louise Ridinger and her husband Jay turned up not only various colors of jadeite, but also direct evidence of mining by the ancient Maya (see www.jades.centroamerica.com; Ward 1996: 29). This area now seems to have been the site where the ancient Olmec and others obtained most of their jadeite as well, although there is the possibility that at least small quantities of jadeite were obtained from other localities. Jadeite (along with albite) is found along the Motagua River Valley and the river's tributaries either in blocks of serpentinite or in pebbles. Harlow (1994) associates the presence of jadeite at this site with contact between the North American Plate and Caribbean Plate.

       More extensive exploration of the Motagua River Valley has revealed numerous new sources of jadeite. Smith and Gendron (1997) ran tests on jadeite pebbles collected on the south side of the Motagua River Valley. The jadeite differed from previously analyzed jadeite samples found on the north side of the valley (where most mining activity took place initially). Of particular significance was the presence of rutile (about 2% by volume) and micro-inclusions of quartz, neither of which had been reported in samples from the north side of the valley. The significance of this find is that it broadens the range of jadeite samples found in this region and, thus, "presents an extra possibility for the geological provenancing of Mesoamerican artifacts in jade."

       Although it has received far less attention, as was noted above, Costa Rica has also been an especially important source of ancient jadeite objects. Jadeite pebbles have been discovered in various riverbeds in Costa Rica, but it is uncertain where the ancient lapidaries obtained all of the jadeite that they worked (see Easby 1968: 14).  Reynoard de Ruenes (1993) notes that while some of the raw material clearly came from the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala, there are also possible local sources in Costa Rica, especially in the Atlantic region (i.e., the Talamanca Valley and Limón Basin), although she is unable to offer definite proof.

       The Caribbean and North Coast of South America. A few artifacts made of jadeite have been discovered in the Caribbean region, although most stone artifacts are made of other materials, such as nephrite or staetite. The jadeite objects include celts and pendants in a variety of shapes. There was a stone grinding technology associated with the Taino culture. This culture emerged around 700 AD and the height of its Classic Period was around 1000 AD. Easby (1991) provides a photograph of two small ceremonial jadeite celts from the Caribbean (one being from Jamaica) in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (fig. 11, page 341). They are made of dark green opaque jadeite. She mentions another jadeite celt (fn. 13, page 370) in the collection of the United States National Museum that is from Oriente Province in Cuba. The source of the material for such artifacts is not known. However, jadeite has been discovered in the Dominican Republic (Perfit 1982) and the Guajira Peninsula of Columbia (Green, Lockwood, and Kiss 1968) and Easby (1991: 341) states that "the geology and serpentine deposits of Cuba and Jamaica might signal associated jadeite." There is no contemporary jadeite industry in this region.

       Russia and Kazakhstan. Morkovkina (1960) and Dobretsov (1963) are among the earliest sources to mention jadeite in Russia (also see Dobretsov and Ponomareva 1965), but it was a number of years after these publications before jadeite began to be exploited in Russia. Writing in 1991, Frey and Skelton (1991: 265) commented that although there were reports of gem-quality jadeite being found in the Sayan region in 1978, "what has been seen on the market to date would only compare with third-rate raw jadeite stones from Burma." Both Ward (1996: 7) and Newman (1998: 98) mention jadeite being mined in Russia, but they add no details. More information is available in Hughes and Kouznetsov (2000), who visited some of the mines in August 2000.      Jadeite was discovered in Itmurundy, Kazakhstan, in the early 1970s, when the region was still part of the Soviet Union. Later, jadeite-bearing rocks were discovered by geologists in the Polar Ural Mountains in 1979. It was not until 1989, however, that Sergei Mikheev discovered a piece of stone with imperial quality jadeite in the Polar Ural Mountains and subsequently was able to attract investment from Hong Kong to commence mining at Pusyerka, located about 160 kilometers from Kharp. Writing in 2000, Hughes and Kouznetsov report that up to that time eighty-eight outcrops of jadeite had been identified in the region: "The jadeite in this area occurs in dikes within a serpentine matrix, with actinolite and phlogopite and from all appearances much material remains." The region has produced jadeite stones of varying quality, including pieces that have sold for as much as US$10,000 and are considered comparable to good quality Burmese jadeite. However, production in the Polar Urals was never large and a report in the May/June 2001 issue of Colored Stone magazine ("Russian Jade", page 89) quoted Richard Hughes stating that at present there was no longer any production.

       Jadeite was discovered next in 1992 in Khakassia, in the Republic of Khakassia (which lies within Siberia), near the border with Mongolia. The site is about 100 kilometers from the capital of Abakan, on the banks of the Yenisey River and near the artificial lake created by the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric dam. The mine is operated by Mikhail “Misha” Khronlenko, who is described by Hughes as "Russia’s biggest jade miner and exporter."[4] After crossing the lake, Hughes describes his arrival at the mine site: "Amidst a hillside open cut stood what is probably the single biggest jadeite boulder I have ever laid eyes on... Misha was beaming. 'What do you think?' he asked. 'It’s incredible,' I gushed. 'Yes,' Misha answered, laughing that manic laugh: 'Every dog gets his day.'" The quality of the jadeite from Khakassia ranges from poor to medium with prices generally in the hundreds of dollars per piece. The same report in Colored Stone magazine cited above states that at present the Khakassia mines are the only ones operating in Russia.

       Jadeite is still being mined in Kazakhstan, but it is of very low quality. Pieces sell for well under US$100.

       California. Hankin (1998: 93) refers to jadeite occurring in "boulders found in California since the 1930s [that] are white, pale green, dark green, and bluish-green, but they are semi-opaque and not of such good quality as the Burmese material." Such boulders have been found in a variety of locations: San Benito country, the border of Mendocino and Trinity counties, and San Luis Obispo country. Jadeite has been found in a glaucophane schist in Sonoma country. Jadeite crystals have been discovered in near the Russian River, near Cloverdale, Mendocino County, California. While not of significant commercial interest, the jadeite in California has received a good deal of scholarly attention: see Coleman (1961); McKee (1963); Coleman and Lee (1963); Coleman and Clark (1968); Maruyama, Liou, and Sasakura (1985); Maruyama and Liou (1988); Patrick and Day (1989); Brothers and Grapes (1989); Ernst and Banno (1991); Radvanee, Banno, and Ernst (1998); and Banno, Shibakusa, Enami, Wang, and Ernst (2000).

       Japan and Korea. Chihara (1991: 216) remarks that "probably the least known source of jadeite in the world is Japan." In fact, a variety of colors and qualities of jadeite is found in Japan. Initial attention focused on jadeite objects discovered in burial sites associated with the Jomon period (roughly 4000-1600 BC) by archaeologists (see Mitsuharu 1966). Chihara (1999: 9) argues that this makes "Japan the oldest jadeite culture in the world," although there are European jadeite artifacts of similar age (see below). Among the oldest items that have been found are tools and small curved pieces "rather like thickened commas and known as magatama, which measure about four centimeters overall in length (Wills 1972: 151; they are sometimes described as cashew-shaped). The latter appear to have been worn as pendants. There were also various shapes of beads (sphere-shaped ones known as marutama and small beads called kodama) and large flat pendants with a hole (known as taishu) dating from various periods. Jadeite carving appears to have died out during the latter part of the seventh century.

       Early writers assumed that these objects were imported from China (along with nephrite; see Laufer 1912: 351-354), but later it was found that the source of jadeite was Japan itself. Such a source of jadeite in Japan was discovered in the Kotaki district of Niigata prefecture in 1939 (see Iwao 1953; also see Chihara 1971 on jadeite in the Omi-Kotaki area). Wills (1972: 151) comments about the jadeite found here, that although "the veins of jadeite were thin and the quality of the material not high, they would have been sufficient for a bead-making industry." Jadeite was subsequently discovered in other nearby regions in central Japan. Seki, et al (1960) discuss jadeite in Sibukawa district. Miyajima, et al (1999a, 1999b) discuss lamprophyllite and lawsonite found in lavender-colored jadeite from the Itoigawa district, Niigata prefecture. Jadaeite has also been found further south at Mt. Osa in Okayama prefecture (see Kobayashi, et al 1987). Chihara (1999) provides a recent and comprehensive survey of the localities where jadeite has been found in Japan. To the above localities he adds several others where some jaideite has been discovered. These include three additional sites in southwestern Japan in addition to Mt. Osa (Oya, Hyogo prefecture, Wakasa, Tottori prefecture; and Nagasaki), on the Kanto mainland, and on the northern island of Hokkaido.

       Jadeite in Japan is found in the form of jadeite rocks and veins as well as jadeite-albitite veins. In the case of the latter, the inner portion is composed of albitite and quartz and the outer part of jadeite. Chihara (1999: 14-15) divides the jadeite found in Japan into three main types: 1) the Kotaki type, "the typical, quite regular zonal arragement is, from inner to outer, albitate (with or without quartz), white jadeite rock, green jadeite rock, soda rich calciforous amphibole and host serpentine"; 2) the Omi type, which shows a "distinct stratiform structure", sometimes with alternative coarse and fine compact layers and often containing lavender colored jadeite within the rock; and 3) the Tsugaike type, this is "a white, compact jadeite associated with veins of very coarse-grained prismatic crystals of jadeite."[5] Chihara (1991: 216-217) reports that white is the most common color of jadeite encountered in Japan, with green being less common, and violet and blue colored jadeite also being encountered. Chihara (1999: 13) lists the following colors (and provides information on the mineral composition of jadeite rocks and the color and chemical composition of some of these): white, lavender, pale lavender, pale blue, pale green, green, and dark green.

        The modern history of jadeite in Japan appears to begin with the re-discovery of jadeite in Niigata prefecture in 1939 (a region from where jadeite came during the Jomon period). Without going into detail, Chihara (1999: 9) states that "in 1941 and 1949 a few tons of jadeite raw material were exported to Hong Kong." Although very little of the jadeite found in Japan is of gem quality, Japanese lapidaries recently have begun carving local jadeite (especially from the Kotaki district of Niigata prefecture). The most popular items made include cabochons for rings and pendants.

       Jadeite artifacts, including tools and magatama, have also been found in archaeological sites in southern Korea. Frey (1991b) and Chihara (1999: 9-10) report that a large number of magatama in particular have been found in archaeological sites from the Silla Dynasty (668-935 AD), including one tomb excavation that "yielded over 35,000 magatama made of jadeite and other stones, as well as glass" (Frey 1991b: 219). The jadeite does not appear to have come from Korea. Both Frey (1991b: 218) and Chihara (1999: 9) note that many of these artifacts have been found near the coast in an area that is not too distant from the Niigata area in Japan and believe that it is likely that these items came to Korea from Japan by sea.

       Europe. Ancient specimens of worked jadeite have been found in various locations in Europe and Turkey. These generally take the form of ceremonial axes. They have been found in various parts of the United Kingdom (see Bishop, et al 1977; Bishop and Woolley 1978; Jones, Bishop, and Woolley 1977; Smith 1963, 1965, 1972; Woodcock, Kelly, and Woolley 1988), Italy (see D'Amico, Felice, and Mazzeo 1992; Leighton 1992; Leighton and Dixon 1992; O'Hare 1990), Netherlands (see Overwell 1983), Spain, Portugal, western Germany, France (see Compagnini and Ricq de Bouard 1993; Ricq de Bouard and Fedele 1993; Le Roux 1979), Switzerland, and Slovakia. Their composition is usually green jadeite (see Woolley, et al 1979). While sometimes there is a large admixture of diposide and aximite or of iron (forming chloromelanite), there are examples of a purity almost equaling that of the better quality Burmese jadeite.

       There have been a number of studies of Neolithic jadeite axes from northern Italy and adjacent regions of eastern France. D'Amico, Felice, and Mazzeo (1992), for example, describe jadeite axes from Friuli in northern Italy, Ricq de Bouard and Fedele (1993) describe them from adjacent areas of southern France,  and D'Amico, et al (1995) provide a general survey of the region. D'Amico, et al (1995: 34) report that "although jadeite is often the dominant mineral in the jades and omphacite in the eclogites, the coexistence of different pyroxene compositions (Jd, Fe-Jd, Omph, Fe-Omph, sporadic Agt) is the general rule, with few exceptions." Jadeite axes have also been found to the north in Switzerland, dating to somewhere between 3500 BC and 1800 BC.

       Several jadeite axes have been found in Moravia. Schmidt and Stecl (1971) describe eight of these. All of the artifacts are described as being various shades of green. On the basis of a variety of tests (including X-ray analysis), they are of "an almost mono-mineral character," being composed of pyroxene jadeite (page 143), with the possibility of "the presence of small amounts of alkaline pyroxene (e.g., fassaite type)" as well as chlorites in some specimens (pages 145, 149). These axes are associated with the Moravian Painted Pottery People stage which is included within the Lengyel culture. Schmidt and Stecl (1971: 150) also discuss the question of the source of the jadeite material. They note that nineteenth century archaeologists speculated that a local source might be found, but this did not prove to be the case. A later author, writing in 1946, argued that the material came from Silesia, but Schmidt and Stecl comment that he was in error and "confused jadeite and nephrite." While Schmidt and Stecl are unable to determine a precise place of origin, they argue that "it is very probable that [the axes] were imported from the South which provided many cultural goods."

       In a more recent article, Hovorka, Farkas, and Spisiak (1998) discuss a Neolithic jadeite axe discovered in neighboring western Slovakia. The artifact is associated by the authors with the local Lengyel culture, which developed in this region between 5000 BC and 3500 BC. Ninety-five percent of the stone is composed of clinopyroxene aggregate which consists of a mixture of jadeite and omphacite. Opaque sections in the center of the axe composed of rutile. The remaining components of the stone include zoisite, light mica, and what appears to be plagioclase. There is no known local source this jadeite. The shape of the axe resembles axes found in Italy and since the western Alps is the site of what appears to be the largest source of raw jadeite in western Europe the authors postulate that the axe may have originated there.

       Documented raw jadeite occurrences in Europe are very rare. The Western Alps in the vicinity of the borders of Switzerland, France, and Italy appears to be the main source of jadeite in Europe. D'Amico, et al (1995), Lefevre and Michard (1965), Compagnoni and Maffeo (1973), and Biino and Compagnoni (1992) describe jadeite found in the Italian portion (the Piedmonte zone) of the western Alps and Saliot (1979) describes jadeite from the French portion. D'Amico, et al (1995: 37) comment that "the fact that sites 300-400 km away from the western Alps, such as Trentino and Friuli, were receiving about 70% of their axes from the western Alps, implies a significant export activity, which was extended also towards other parts of Europe." While this region appears to have been a source of most of the early jadeite artifacts found in Europe, there may have been other sources as well, but these have yet to be found and small sources may have been worked out long ago. Elsewhere is Europe, Essene (1969) describes jadeite discovered on the island of Corsica. Frey and Skelton (1991: 260) remark that the raw material found in Europe is not of gem quality and, therefore, has generated relatively little interest except among archaeologists.

       Turkey. Jadeite has been found in a few locations in Turkey. Some of this jadeite is commercially exploited and exported as jade. The source of the jadeite is east of Balikesir in northwestern Turkey in what is known as the Tavsanli Zone. Okay (1984) describes this zone as a "tectonic belt of blueschist, volcano-sedimentary complex and ophiolite" that measures between fifty and sixty kilometers wide and some 300 kilometers long. Within this zone are found what Okay (1997: 835; also see Okay 1980) refers to as "jadeite—K-feldspar rocks" and notes that "unlike... classical jadeites, which occur as blocks in serpentine and have a largely metasomatic origin, jadeite—K-feldspar rocks from northwest Turkey are found as blocks in the Miocene debris flows and represent metamorphosed phonolites." He continues his description (1997: 837):

 

The breccia layer consists of very poorly sorted, matrix supported blocks of blueschist, peridotite, marble and jadeite—K-feldspar rock in a mudstone/sandstone matrix. The size of the clasts ranges from 3m down to a few mm with jadeite—K-feldspar rocks forming the largest blocks... The farmers have carried most of these blocks to the margins of their fields and have used them to make stone walls. All the exported jadeite—K-feldspar rocks come from these stone walls or from the boulders in the fields.

 

In general appearance, the rocks are described by Okay (1997: 838) as "very tough, white, pale green to purple rocks with a fine-grained homogeneous texture."

       In his 1997 article Okay analyzes eight samples (page 838). The jadeite content ranges from 34% to 85% and the K-feldspar content from 43% to none. In general, the higher the percentage of jadeite the lower the percentage of K-feldspar. Other elements found in the stones in include aegirine, lawsonite, albite (in only one of the samples), sericite, and quartz. There are also traces of monzanite, piemontite, and magnetite in some of the samples. In regard to color, Okay (1997: 839) comments that "the striking pink colour of many of the jadeite—K-feldspar rocks comes from jadeite, which is commonly pale brownish pink in thin-section. The origin of the colour if jadeite is unclear but may be related to the trace elements in the mineral."

       Other Localities. The mineralogical literature contains reports of jadeite being found in a few other localities. These include the Indonesian island of Sulawesi (Roever 1955) and the Pacific island of New Caledonia (Black 1970). None of this jadeite appears to have been exploited commercially. Jadeite has been reported coming from Tibet as well, but this has not been confirmed.

       Wright and Chadbourne (1970: 76) discuss the possibility of jadeite being found in the Middle East in Bibical times:

 

Since jade has been found in a number of archaeological digs in bible lands, it must hve been a familiar gemstone of early cultures... The International Bible Encyclopedia and Concordance printed in 1908 suggests that 'jasper' as used in the Scriptures might well be translated jade in many instances. In Revelation when jasper 'clear as crystal' is mentioned, fine translucent jade could be the gem to which it refers (21:11)... Merrill F. Unger explains that considerable uncertainty is found regarding the Greek term iaspis, usually translated jasper. Ancient peoples likely included lovely green jade as well as several hues of translucent chalcedony as iaspis. The greek word often is used not so much to describe color or other special optical properties of the gem, but to indicate qualities of an object too beautiful to describe adequtely. The delicate hues of jade with its translucency approaching the clarity of crystal might be the highly esteemed and cherished gem of the people of Bible days.

 

In fact, it would seem likely that the various stones referred to as iaspis do not include jadeite, but are other simulants instead.

 

6. Mining and Cutting Jadeite

 

Jadeite in Burma is mined in the mountains and rivers. The center of the industry remains the Uru River valley, where the vast majority of jadeite is recovered from alluvial deposits. The jadeite from such sources is found in rounded boulders with a relatively thin outer layer and is referred to as "river jade". Jadeite traders tend to associate the best quality of rough jadeite with river jade. This is because weathering tends to remove damaged areas from the stone and the thin skin of the rough stone allows for a more accurate assessment of the quality of the jadeite within. The jadeite located in hillside sites is found in irregular chunks. This jadeite is called "mountain jade". Mountain jadeite stones usually are covered with a relatively thick outer layer that is called "mist" by Chinese traders. Jadeite dikes are the most desirable forms of deposit to discover: "It is said that to find a dike is to become an instant millionaire. For whilst ordinary miners flail away in the common soil, only rarely turning up a boulder of jade, the dike is the mother lode itself, a bridge straight to heaven" (Hughes, et al 1996-97). Some dikes contain only jadeite and albite. Others have a boundary on one or both sides of dark gray to blue-black amphibolite-eckermannite-glaucophan or dark green actinolite. Chhibber (1934) describes the boundary with serpentinite as being marked by a soft, green border zone that consists of a mixture of the adjacent vein minerals and chlorite, with or without calcite, actinolite, talc, and cherty masses.

       There are numerous descriptions of jadeite mining in Burma from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Warry (1888, quoted in Hertz 1912), for example, provides an early description of the mining at Tawmaw:

 

At the end of seven and a half miles from Sanka we emerged upon a broad plateau, some hundreds of acres in extant, the whole of which had been cleared for mining purposes. The excavations, which were in some cases of considerable depth, presented the general appearance of a series of limestone quarries at home. The largest quarry measured about 50 yards in length by 40 broad and 20 deep. The bottom was flooded to a depth of a few feet. It is the joint property of 120 Kachins in equal shares, one of which is held by Kansi Nawng, the principal Sawbwa of the district... There were at the time of our visit elaborate bamboo structures over some of the largest quarries for the purpose of bailing out the water. When the floor of the pit can be kept dry a few hours – and this is as a rule only possible in February and March – immense fires are lighted at the base of the stone. A careful watch must then be kept, in a tremendous heat, in order to detect the first signs of splitting. When these occur the Kachins immediately attack the stone with pickaxes and hammers, or detach portions by hauling on leavers inserted in the crack. All this must be done when the stone is at its highest temperature, and the Kachins protect themselves from the fierce heat by fastening layers of plantain leaves round the exposed parts of their persons..."

 

       The jade mining industry in Burma has grown in recent years following a peace agreement with rebels associated with the Kachin Independence Army in February 1993 and subsequent liberalization of the mining industry. Hughes, et al (1996-97) remarked after a visit to the mining area in Burma in 1996, "government liberalization of the mining and trading sectors has brought renewed vigor to the quest for jade. Long-abandoned mines are being reclaimed and everywhere one looks, signs of the current renaissance are on display." Hughes discussed mining with a local Jingpho (Kachin) headman who told him that mining around his village had begun only four years previously, although the village had been there for centuries. Mining concessions are awarded by the government. While some Jingpho are engaged in jadeite mining, Hughes, et al (1996-97) note that most of those holding concessions are Chinese (i.e., ethnic Chinese in Burma). The jadeite-bearing boulders are evaluated by a government-appointed committee and then taxed at the rate of ten percent of the appraised value.

       Chhibber (1934: 44-65) provides descriptions of various mining operations in Burma in the early twentieth century. The mines associated with some of the major dikes could be relatively extensive, with a number of shafts cut into the jadeite dikes. Elsewhere people simply search the terrain or rivers and streams for jadeite boulders. Chhibber (1934: 65) even mentions that "in places the Shans dive in the Uru chaung [river] in search of the precious stone."[6]  Mining methods do not appear to have changed much over the years. One change noted by Hughes, et al (1996-97)  during their 1996 visit is that, while in the past "miners employed fire and water to break away pieces of the jade," since the peace accord miners have been able to use dynamite, allowing them to blast through rock that with "a day's worth of drilling might only penetrate 12 inches."

       During their 1996 visit to the jadeite mining area in Burma, Hughes, et al (1996-97) visited Maw-sisa, among the most active jadeite mines in the Hpakan region:

 

Maw-sisa is, in many respects, the quintessential mine, with jade recovered from alluvial deposits in the Uru river conglomerate. This formation is as much as 1000-feet deep in places, and present mining has just scratched the surface. Thus jadeite hoarders should take note--from what we could see, there is a good millennia or three's worth of material remaining to be extracted. Each mining claim is just 15-feet wide; to keep from encroaching into the neighbor's area, a thin wall of earth and boulders is left as a partition. When seen from above, the result is spectacular --several square miles of stair-step like benches, resembling nothing so much as a massive archeological dig. But diggers here do not search for mere bones or shards of pottery. Instead, they seek the Chinese holy grail, small pieces of heaven... At Maw-sisa, diggers were mining a black layer, locally termed ah may jaw. While jade is said to be richest in this layer, it can occur anywhere in the conglomerate. The first step in mining is removal of the overburden, taung moo kyen (literally 'head cap removal'). Since the overburden is also conglomerate, it may also contain jade, so the workers must search this, too. We saw people working about 50 feet into the conglomerate, which is stripped away with primitive tools. Miners were asked how often they find jade. They said it depends on luck. While some days they might find up to 25 pieces, other times they might go for days without finding anything. In terms of size, some boulders are 200 300 kg, some even as big as a house, but most are less than 1 kg.

 

Hughes, et al (1996-97) describe a somewhat different style of mining near Hweka, the center of jadeite mining in the Hweka Makabin area: "At the top of the mountain, ingenious mining pools have been excavated. When enough water accumulates, a gate is opened, allowing water to rush down and "sluice" the hillside below. Later, men will come to examine the boulders thus uncovered, looking for that special texture and feeling that sends the pulse racing--jade."

       One especially interesting aspect of jadeite mining is how miners determine that a boulder in fact contains jadeite. Hughes, et al (1996-97) discusses this at length:

 

... miners look for something which, in the vernacular is called yumm, a fibrous texture. Ordinary boulders show a reflection of mica or sand, while jadeite is smooth, with yumm, and without particle reflections. In addition to the fibrous texture, jadeite also tends to stick slightly to one's hand or foot under water. It also has a different sound when struck with a pick, as well as having a greater heft (density) than ordinary stones. Miners also look also something called shin, which, from what we could gather, is the type of sheen seen on schist. Black shin is said to "damage" the stone, apparently being an indication of increased iron content (chloromelanite). They also look for the show points, where the jade color shows through the skin.

 

Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000: 11-13) provide additional descriptions of jadeite mining in Burma:

 

Dike Mining. Unlike secondary deposits, where the miner has to determine which of the myriad boulders is jadeite, the dikes contain readily recognizable material. Historically, miners started a fire near the dike and then threw water on the rock to crack it. Today, at Tawmaw, often miners first must use backhoes, scrapers, and other earth-moving equipment to expose the jadeite dikes, or rudimentary digging to create shafts to reach them. Shafts observed [in 1997] reached depths of approximately 10–20 [meters]. Once a dike is exposed, miners use dynamite and jackhammers to break the jadeite apart and away from the country rock...

 

Boulder and Gravel Mining. The workings at Sate Mu and Maw-sisa are, in many respects, typical of secondary jadeite mines. The Uru Boulder Conglomerate is as much as 300 m deep in places, and alluvial mining has barely scratched the surface. It appeared from the open cuts that there is a huge quantity of material remaining to be extracted. We saw people working about 18 m down into the conglomerate, stripping it away with primitive tools.

The first step in mining the conglomerate is removal of the overburden, taung moo kyen (literally, "head cap removal"). Since the "overburden" (... a layer of alluvium of variable thickness followed by a pebble-gravel layer over the Uru Conglomerate) also may contain jadeite, workers must search this material, too. Each claim is only about 5 m wide; to keep from encroaching onto the neighbor’s area, miners leave a thin wall of conglomerate as a partition. Eventually the walls themselves weather away; nevertheless, when seen from above, the result is spectacular – several square kilometers of step-like benches, as if an ancient city were being excavated. At Maw-sisa, diggers concentrated on mining a black conglomerate layer called ah may jaw, where jadeite is said to be richest.

At Hpakangyi, more than 10,000 workers excavated an area that had reached hundreds of meters deep. Waste was piled into a waiting truck, and then emptied directly into the river that bisects Hpakan. At the dump, jade pickers scrambled over the riverbank to search for jade overlooked at the source. Along the banks of the Uru River, large mounds of boulders attest to two centuries of mining. When the water level is high, the river is worked by divers breathing via crude air pumps.

 

       Relatively little cutting of jadeite is done in northern Burma, where most of the raw material is mined. Usually traders simply bid on the rough boulders. Ward (1996: 44) refers to this as "the ultimate Chinese gem gamble." While jadeite traders commonly claim that they can predict what is inside of such a boulder through careful examination of the outside, Hughes, et al (1996-97) are skeptical: "anyone who has ever seen boulders sawn open can prove the lie in that old wives' tale. Even for experts, much guesswork is still involved." Chhibbner (1934: 81) notes that "sometimes before a boulder of jade is sold, if it is promising, certain portions are polished to expose clearly to view the more valuable parts of the stone." Walker (1991: 24) refers to this as being 'mawed': "that is, a flat of about 1 x 1 1/2 inches (2.5x4 cm) is cut and polished on the material in an attempt to reveal the boulder's interior colour." This is still the practice at government auctions held in Yangon. Johnson and Koivula (1998) warn that such "windows" (as they are commonly called) should be checked for artificial coatings or other tampering, which may give a false impression of the material within the stone. Sometimes the jadeite rough is simply cut in half to expose the interior. However, a great deal of care is required prior to cutting open a boulder. The cutter runs the risk of cutting through and ruining a good area. Hughes, et al (1996-97) note that "before cutting, the surface is carefully examined to select the best place for sawing. While it is difficult to see through the skin, some cracks can be seen. This is important, as fractures can have a dramatic impact on value. There is no specific formula for cutting--it all depends on individual judgment and the rough's features." Lee (1956) describes a more careful means of evaluating jadeite boulders that involves grinding away the skin. Hughes, Galibert, et al (2000) report that "alternatively, some owners gradually slice the boulder from one end (perhaps the thickness of a bangle, so that each slice can be used for bangles or cabochons) until they hit good color. They then repeat the process from the opposite end, the top, and the bottom, until the area of best color is isolated."

       Chhibber (1934: 83) briefly discusses jadeite lapidary work prior to the Second World War. He notes that, even in Burma, "the methods employed in the cutting of jadeite... are really Chinese." In Burma most cutting was done in Mandalay, although some was done at Mogaung and a very small amount at the mines themselves. Cutting jadeite in Burma was limited to "surface carving and bead-making." Otherwise more complex carving was done in China: "it appears that jad